Packilvanian grammar

The grammar of the Packilvanian language is as follows. For the words of thereof see the Packilvanian dictionary.

Nouns

Nouns are marked for class, case, and number. Packilvanian nouns are built as follows:

Case	Class	Number	Noun	Demonstrative
No case (nominative and sometimes accusative) "o-" (Accusative) "a-" (Genitive) "we-" (Locative) "ye-" (Instrumental) "kha-" (Infinitive)	"-l-" (non-sapient) "-m-" (sapient)	"-u-" (singular or uncountable) "-e-" (plural)		"-arud" (Proximal) "-qa" (Distal)

Cases

The are 5 types of case markers. Case markers indicate what entities are having the action done to them or are doing the action in relation to other entities within a sentence. The cases are as follows:

• The nominative and accusative cases are unmarked within the sentence and are usually determined by the order in which they appear in the sentence. For example: The sentence "The armed forces are invading that country" is translated as "leHagan leKharish lejahdafiyal ludomineqa". leHagan is the subject (or in the nominative case) while the object is ludomineqa, which is in the accusative case. If you want to change the structure of the sentence so that the object is at the head of the clause then you add an "o-" to indicate the object. For example: "That country is being invaded by the armed forces" is "oluDomineqa lujahdafiyal leHagan leKharish". As you will notice, the class of the verb changes to that of the new noun in the head of the clause.
• The genitive case indicates that one noun is possessed or proceeds from or is subordinate to another noun. This is marked by the prefix "a-". The genitive always follows the noun which possesses it or from which it proceeds. For instance "The teachers of this school are good" is translated as "meRabiy alumadrasarud mebenaan".
• The locative case indicates that the noun is is site at which the action is being done. It precludes the need for a position-marking adjective or adverb. It is indicated by the "we-" prefix. For example. "The woman entered her house through the northern gate" is "muFamiya muyadhaabayn lubayeet adhun welubawaab luKeraat" or "weluBawaab luKeraat mufamiya muyadhaabayn lubayeet".
• The instrumental case indicates that a noun is being used by another noun to accomplish a task. It is indicated by the "ye-" prefix. For example: "The judge adjudicated the criminals by the laws of Packilvania" is "muQadim muqadmam mehirmatan yeleKhanon aBakhilfaniya" or "yeleKhanon aBakhilfaniya muqadim muqadma mehirmatan" or "muQadim muqadmam yeleKhanon aBakhilfaniya mehirmatan" or "omeHirmatan muQadim muqadmam yeleKhanon aBakhilfaniya" or "omeHirmatan meqadmam yeleKhanon aBakhilfaniya''
• The infinitive is used to mark a non-finite verb that has noun-like properties in the context in which is is used. It is indicated through the "kha-" prefix. For example the sentence "Marriage is important to unite the family" translates to "luZawija lubasishme khaluikhtifiya lubayeet" or "khaluIkhtifiya lubayeet luzawija lubasishme". Take note that usually everything after the kha-, ncluded other words, comprise the infinitive phrase and move with it in the sentence. In this case, khaluikhtifiya lubayeet comprises the infinitive phrase.

Classes

Classes or genders go after cases and before numbers. There are two classes: the "-m-" infix is used for sentient things while the "-l-" infix is used for non-sentient things.

For example:

• The Sultan in Packilvania is muShultan
• The book in Packilvanian is luKitab

Number

Markers of quantity or amount go after the class infix and before the root or stem of the word. The marker for plural is "-e-" while that of the singular is "-u-". Uncountable things like water or sand are regarded as singular. For example:

• The business in Packilvanian is luChubal
• The days in Packilvania are leYam
• The teacher in Packilvanian is muRab
• The councilmen in Packilvania are meWatmijhalis

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are used to determine how far or close the noun is relative to the speaker. It is added to the end of the noun after the root.

• Distal: "-qa" is used to convey a similar meaning to those or that. For instance, "muDonahaqa' '" is "That Leader".
• Proximate: "-arud" is used to communicate a similar meaning to this or these. For example, "meBayeetarud" means "These Houses".

Verbs

Verbs are constructed as follows: [contextual prefixes]-[root]-[adverbial suffixes]-[inflectional suffixes].

• Contextual prefixes are those of the noun to which the verb is related i.e. Definiteness-negation-class-number
• Root is the stem of the word
• Adverbial suffixes are roots of adverbs that modify the verb such as quality, quantity, size etc.
• Inflectional suffixes tell you the aspect and mood.

Contextual prefixes and pronomiality

Verbs in Packilvanian are prefixed with the same prefixes as their subject. These are called contextual prefixes because they tell you the context of the subject. By extension, verbs in Packilvanian have pronomial properties for the subject. However, they are not marked for the case as it is assumed they are always referring to the subject which is always in the nominative case (which is unmarked). For instance, bemanje means they eat. This means that you do not need the pronoun of the subject to understand who and what is doing the action described by the verb. Thus they are applied in the same order as the nouns as follows (refer to the noun section for more info):

Negation	Class	Number	Root
Not	Type of word	Number of entities	Stem of the word

Adverbial suffixes

Adverbial suffixes are added between the root and the inflectional suffixes. They describe or modify the verb performed. They must appear in a specific order as indicated in the modifiers and descriptors section.

Aspect

Verbs are inflected for time as follows:

	Tense
			Non-past	Past
Aspect	Perfect		none, for example : lunazra (To see)	-am or -m, for example lunazaram (To have seen)
	Imperfective	Habitual	none, for example lunazra	-ad or -d, for example: lunazrad (To have seen often)
		Continuous	-ul or -l, for example lunazral (To be seeing)	-us - or -s, for example: lunazras (To have been seeing)

Inflectional suffixes (markers of aspect and mood) are appended to the end of the word as follows:

Root	Adverbial suffixes	Applicative mood	Reciprocal or associative mood	Imperative mood	Optative mood	Interrogative mood	Aspect
N/A	N/A	For or on behalf of	To itself or to another entity in the same group	Command or instruction	Wish or uncertainty	Question	Movement through time and space
N/A	N/A	-buror - bur	-shalv or - eshalv / -chas or -echas	-ku or -eku	-qar or -eqar	-fi or -efi	Look at table above

Indicative mood

This is the default mood and it states things as fact. It usually follows the word order: subject verb object

• Present perfect/habitual form: I speak with my mom everyday. Mitamka muyam myuma amin.
• Present continuous form: My friend is playing with her doll. muSol amin mulaybul yelulayeeb adhun khapajrashalv.
• Past perfect form: The teacher had spoken to me about my behaviour. Murab mutamkam min lubehad amin.
• Past habitual form: We used to race to the cafeteria after school. Wapramnathulad lufitar lumadras welushaammul
• Past continuous form: The man had no right soliciting money from his friends. muWayeet nemurakhat muqeeras leDinar alesol adhun.

Interrogative mood

This mood is used to ask questions. Interrogative clauses are formed by appending the suffix -fi or-efi to a word such as -Memulfi (Do they eat? or Are they eating?). -fi basically functions like the Staynish words "which?" or "what?". Depending on what it's attached to, it will point to what the speaker is asking about.

The following examples are examples where the speaker already knowns about the object or subject of the question, but wants to receive confirmation for the question person to confirm this. In this case the fi will fall on the verb as follows:

• Non past perfect/non past habitual: Will you ask your friend what his plans are for the holidays? Duqeerfi musol adu welexan adhun weleyamdan?
• Past perfective: Have the soldiers returned from their campaign? Mujahedeen menahedfim welukhravan aishne?
• Past continuous: Were they riding their bicycles in the garden? Ishshareedfis ledaraaja aishne welujardin?
• Past habitual: Did you often find yourself wondering what your purpose is? Dulaktchasfid tafkirus lutsiha adu?
• Non past continuous: Will you see a lot of people walking on the street? Dunarafil lumustaf leshabil lethaar welushari?

Fi can also be added at the end of placeholder nouns to point something unknown about which the speaker asking instead of the verb:

• How? e.g., Amhoud lutakhaalam min lutaraqfi (translation: How could Amhoud abandon me, literally: Amhoud had abandoned me for what reason?)
• When? e.g., Amhoud muyadhaabeqa muyummah adhun welukhronfi? (translation: When did Amhoud leave his mother? Literally: Amhoud go away from mother his at what time?
• Where? e.g., Amhoud mufaykhalam lulakhatefi? (translation: Where did Amhoud arrive?, literally: Amhoud had arrived at which time?) If the sentence had been Amhoud lufaykhalamfi? then the sentence would be: Did Amhoud arrive?
• Which? e.g., Amhoud muyamurul mujahadeenefi? (translation: Which soldier is Amhoud commanding?, literally: Amhoud is commanding which officer?)
• Whose? e.g., Amhoud muabnefi? This sentence means Is Amhoud a son? But Amhoudfi muabne means Which Amhoud is a son? if you want to ask, Whose son is Amhoud, you need to be specific. For example: Of which woman is Amhoud the son of? Amhoud muabne amufamiyefi? This is also an example of how the genitive case can act as an object in the sentence
• Why? e.g., Amhoud muyadhaabequl yelusababfi? (translation: Why is Amhoud going there? literally: Amhoud is going there for what reason?)

Subjunctive

Subjuctive mood is used to indicate that there is uncertainty. This is done by appending the suffix -qar or -eqar to the end of the verb word. For example:

• Stative: If the man cannot control his anger, I will be forced to fire him. Translation: Luwayeet nelukontroleqarul lukirion adhun, mifurdul khamudismiss dhun. This sentence is written in a very casual way. People from Fidakar and people who live in cities like Kemer tend to speak like this.
• Object but no subject: If John was loved, he wouldn't act in this way. Translation: oIhan luyamaraqarus, dhun nemubehadel yelutaraqarud. Literally: (object mark)John Act(sbjn)(past-cont.) he (negation)(person-mark)behave(present-cont)
• Interrogative mood: What would you do if I told you that I don't love you? Translation: Duhadefi mitamkaqar du mineyamara du?
• Reflexive mood: If you cared about yourself, you would stop acting like a fool. Translation: Dumarashalveqar duqif mubehada muahmaq.
• Applicative mood: If you continue working for those people, you will go crazy. Translation: Dushuglaburqarul meshabileqa dumajnunul (welumustaf).
• It is not possible to use the subjunctive mood and the imperative mood together.

Imperative mood

The imperative mood indicates a command or instruction. In some formal contexts one would add the suffix -ki to the stem for instance "Pramnaki" (meaning "Walk"). However in most contexts people simply use the stem of the verb e.g., "Pramna welupramaan aShultan Zygros muDhusht nadine dawra welupramaan luikhtet weluhaqun" ("Walk along Sultan Zygros II street and turn to the first Street on your right").

• Applicative mood: Make a sandwich for him. Yatbakhburki dhun lusendawij.
• Reflexive mood: Do not hurt yourself! Translation: Neharmashalveki!
• Some people omit the ki altogether because in many contexts it's obvious that the speaker is giving a command.

Reciprocal mood

The reciprocal mood indicates that that the verb is doing something to itself. For example:

• Past perfect: "The man had spoken to himself for many hours" "muWayeet mutamkashalvam yelehoor lequpiy".
• Present perfect: "The woman gives herself presents" "muFamiy mutakabadashalv lehadiat"
• Present continuous: "The boy is cooking himself delicious chickpea dip" "muSageer muthakhbashalval luhumus ludamadh"
• Past perfect habitual: "The girl often braided her hair in the kitchen" "muMedhin muhurwashalvad lusashem adhun welumanjoob"

Applicative mood

This means to do something for or on behalf of another using the suffix -eburor -burFor instance: Bemanjebur(They eat for/on behalf of someone/something else).

Causative mood

This means to make something happen, to effect to or to bring into being. For such words, the suffix -miya or fiya is used. The exact meaning of the word varies on a case by case basis as to what attribute of the stem that the causative suffix is bringing to effect. For example, the word ikht means one. But when it is ikhtimiya it means to make something unique, to stand out or to be alone whereas ikhtifiya means to unify, to bring together, or to amalgamate.

Derivation of verbs from nouns

In some cases, if a verb is derived from a noun, a pattern can be observed. This usually applies to nouns with two syllables. This does not apply to all verbs and nouns or to all two-syllable nouns. If the noun's last syllable follows the pattern Consonant-Vowel-Consonant, the vowel disappears and an "a" is appended to the end. If the first syllable follows the pattern Consonant-Vowel and the consonant is a "u", then the "u" is replaced with an "a". For example:

• Bahim = noise but to make a noise is bahma
• Praman = a road, but to walk is pramna
• Tamuk = language, but to talk is Tamka.
• Chubaal = business, but to conduct business is to chabla

Pronouns

This page (or section) is a work in progress by its author(s) and should not be considered final.

Pronouns are inflected for case and class where applicable:

• First person indicates that the speaker or a group of which the speaker is a part is performing the action or having the action performed on them. The first person pronoun replaces their names or any another reference. The prefix can appear as either a word or a stand along word as follows:
  • In the singular form, the prefix mi- is used or the word min. If the speaker is the subject then, the prefix mi replaces the noun as well as the case and other initial markings on the verb root. For instance: "Mitamka muMeer" means "I speak to the Governor". If the roles are reversed then the sentence would change as follows: muMeer mutad min.
  • In the plural form, to include the addressee, the pronoun prefix is Wa and the stand alon word is Wan. "Wasalam welumajhid" means "We prayed at the Temple". Alternatively, it can be: "The teacher spoke to us", that being "Murayeeb mutamka wan". Alternatively, the pronoun can be placed at the head of the sentence as follows "Owan metadas muMeer" means "We were spoken to by the Governor". To exclude the addressee, you would use the prefix sil- and the word silne as follows: "We are finishing the business we started". "Silnahal luchubal lubidayt silne ".
• Second person: This indicates the addressee.
  • The singular form used the the Du prefix and Dun word. For example: You are not allowed to speak to the Sultan. Nedurakht khatad wemuShultan.
  • The plural form is zu and it works as follows: "You donate all your money to charitable causes", which in Packilvanian is Zuzakat ludinar luned azun welejahud lezakatiya. In this sentence, the plural second person pronoun zun or you is in the genitive case.

• Third person indicates someone or a group that the speaker is speaking to the addressee about. The following pronouns apply.
  • To speak about someone or something in the singular third person form, the prefix dhu- is used and the stand alone word dhun is used. For example, the sentence "John came by the house last summer. He brought a basket of apples". In Packilvanian this would be: "Ihan muyatam lusayf lumad welubayt. Dhuahdur lusala aletufaah". Another example is "I have not seen him since he drove by. Have you looked for him in the shed?" In Packilvanian this would be, "Neminara dhun sayinka dhushareed wehuna. Dunarafim dhun welutasalit?"
  • To speak about a group, you would use the prefix "ish-" and the pronoun "ishne". For example: "They had a meeting with their boss yesterday". This is "Ishmijhalis lulamish lumaharaj aleishne".

Modifiers and descriptors

In Packilvanian, there are technically neither adjectives nor adverbs. This is because words which describe or modify other words have an embedded copulative i.e., the prefix that they have already implies something akin to "is" or "be". Thus, these words are functionally verbs. For instance, "the happy people" is "meshabil mejubeel" which directly translates to "the people (that) are happy". Words that modify or describe other words thus have the same prefix as the word that they are describing (e.g., meshabil mejubeel).

If multiple modifiers and descriptors are used, they appear according to the order intended by the speaker based. By a loose convention followed by practically no one, they appear in the following order:

• Quantity, number, order or frequency
• Quality or opinion.
• Direction or position or relation
• Size.
• Age.
• Shape.
• Color.
• Proper adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or material)
• Purpose or qualifier.

Positionals

Positional are words which indicate either direction or relation. These words are rarely used because the case marker "we-" performs a universal function as a positional indicator. In the rare and unlikely event that a positional is required, it functions as an ordinary verb or noun depending on context and use and has no special grammatical traits thereto affixed.

For example:

• -beneyath: beneath, under or underneath
• -ubuv: above
• -ashidi: beside
• -akhansta: against
• -dupa: on top of, on
• -aye: with (not to be confused with the instrumental case)
• -munga: among
• -idaween: between
• -akhrono: during
• -ayn: within, in
• -xepet: except, excluding
• -gurash: across
• -nayeer: near, close
• -joor: through
• -vah: off
• -rotunda: around
• -berefia: before
• -futar: after
• -far: far

Diminutive, intensive and feminisation

These are used to show something to a smaller degree: the suffix -amne or -mne can be added as a suffix to noun, verb or modifier. This can be doubled to further diminuate the word concerned. For example, luwayeet (man) becomes luwayeetamne (small man) which can become luwayeetamnemne (a very small or pathetic man). Double diminutive are often used as pejoratives.

Intensive forms have the suffix -gur or -agur or the preferred form qur. intensive word form is one which denotes stronger, more forceful, or more concentrated action relative to the root on which the intensive is built. For example: Manje (eat) becomes manjegur (devour) becomes manjegurgur (consume gluttonously). Double intensives are also pejoratives in many cases.

Packilvanian does not have sex-based grammatical gender but a suffix can be added to a word to feminise it. -Elea and -lea are the official root however a simple -a, -ia and -lia have been used to effeminise words. Non-feminised words also use the latter three at their ends. For example lumedichi (doctor) becomes lumedichilea (female doctor). Feminisation applied to men is regarded as a pejorative.

Subordinates and conjunctions

These words join two or more clauses and phrases. These are grammatically adverbs. The constructions work similarly to Staynish-Codexian.

• Aladha: Although, though, even though
• Akhausa: Because
• Rashalta: As a result
• Nadina: And, as well as
• Neshtemne: Nevertheless
• Nemudwanad: Notwithstandin
• Oor: Or
• Sayinka: Since
• Soobaqaintalia: Subsequently
• Tarafar: Therefore
• Tilha: Until
• Pushtar: Despite
• Khawayar: However

Comparatives and superlatives

To show that a word is the most superlative among the three or more options described one adds the intensive form -qurqur to the end of the word. To show that a word is the biggest out of two options and bigger than another option in a list but not the biggest of all, one uses the lesser intensive form -qur. E.g., Basqur means bigger and basqurqur is biggest. If there's only two options, then basqur, means the biggest. People can also use redoubling to mean the superlative. For example, basbas means biggest. It's rarely used in formal writing. Basqurqur is rarely used in every day conversation is usually appears in formal writing. Normally the way people speak, the comparative and superlative and intensive forms are combined since there's rarely any need for a distinction between the three forms. Most people do not actually use comparatives and superlatives instead they use periphrasis to achieve the same result for instance: "Noi is the greatest goddess" (Noi muloheem mubasqurqur) instead one would say "Noi is above all other goddesses" (Noi muyubav meloheem mekumeen).

Numbers

Numbers describe a numerical quantity. Packilvanian uses its own numerals and it uses a base ten system. Further there are three types of numbers: cardinals, ordinals and frequentials. A "t" is added at the end of a cardinal to make it an ordinal however if the cardinal already ends in a "t", then an "et" must be added to end of the cardinal to make it an ordinal. "Shan" is added at the end of a cardinal to make it a frequential.

Cardinal			Ordinal	Frequency
Name	Staynish Numeral	Packilvanian Numeral
-raj	0	0	None	None
-ikht	1		-ikhtet	-ikhteshan
-dush	2		-dasht	-dushashan
-taar	3		-taart	-tarshan
-vaar	4		-vaart	-veyeershan
-sunk	5		-sunkt	-veyeefshan
-saash	6		-sasht	-sashan
-shvaan	7		-shvaant	-sheevanshan
-gat	8		-gatet	-gashan
-naan	9		-naant	-nashan
-dakt	10		daktet	-daktashan
-laav	11		-laavt	-laavshan
-sool	12		-soolt	-soolshan
-sool na ikht	13 (12+1)	-
-sool na dush	14 (12+2)	-
-sool na taar	15 (12+3)	-
-sool na vaar	16 (12+4)	-
-sool na sunk	17 (12+5)	-
-sool na saash	18 (12+6)	-
-sool na shvaan	19 (12+7)	-
-sool na gat	20 (12+8)	-
-sool na naan	21 (12+9)	-
-sool na dakt	22 (12+10)	-
-sool na laav	23 (12+11)	-
-sool-dasht	24 (12*2)
-sool-taart	36 (12*3)
-sool-vaart	48 (12*4)
-sool-sunkt	60 (12*5)
-sool-saasht	72 (12*6)
-sool-shvaant	84 (12*7)
-sool-gatet	96 (12*8)
-sool-naant	108 (12*9)
-sool-dakt	120 (12*10)
-sool-laavt	132 (12*11)
-hash	144 (12*12)		-hasht	-gureleenashan
-khur	1,728 (144*12)		-khurt	-khurileenashan
-jeed	20,736 (1728*12)		jeedet	-jeedshan
-maq	248,832 (20736*12)		-maqalt	-meqaleenshan
-taq	2,985,984 (248,832*12)		-taqalt	-taqshan
-wak	5,159,780,352 (2,985,984*1,728)		-wakt	-wakshan
-zoor	8,916,100,400,000 (5,159,780,352 *1,728)		-zoort	-zoortshan

Here is a example of a number:

Staynish numeral	Staynish name	Packilvanian name	Packilvanian numerals	Calculation
781	Seven hundred and eighty one	Hash-sukt na sool-sunkt na ikht	--	5*144+12*5+1
68,493	Sixty two thousand, eight hundred and nineteen	Jeed-taart na khur-taart na hash-shvaant na sool-shvaant na naan	----	20736*3+1728*3+144*7+12*7+9
100	One hundred	Sool-naant na dakt	-	12*9+10
56	Fifty six	Sool-vaar na dash	-	12*4+8

Calendar and Time

The Packilvanian calendar uses the Common Era lunisolar calendar. The months match up but the weekdays are vastly different. Each week comprises 12 days. A month is called a "Dool", a Day is called a "Yam" and a Week is called a "Iskar". The day comprises 20 hours of 72 minutes each. An hour is called a "Hoor" and a minute is called a "Tash" while a second is called a "Jum".

Months		Weekdays
January	Ishahan	1	Xariq
February	Qalahid	2	Yazoom
March	Odihan	3	Ashmal
April	Jahar	4	Estaar
May	Subal	5	Mikhaal
June	Dinesh	6	Kubraal
July	Waseem	7	Zriaal
August	Hayaad	8	Shadool
September	Qowal	9	Pasheed
October	Kharaat	10	Miyatar
November	Tharaan	11	Sokar
December	Dhuyeel	12	Sowad

If you want to tell someone one the time is, there are two options:

• Digital time: Here you say the numbers on a digital clock for example if the time is 19:67, the you say Sool na Shvaan sool-sunkt na shvaan (Nineteen sixty seven).
• Analogue time: There are two ways:
  • When you have passed the half way point of the hour, I.e., 36 minutes, You say the number of minutes until the coming hour. For example: if the time is 17:65, you say Shvaan tulha sool na saash (7 to 18).
  • When you have not passed the half way point then you say how many minutes have passed in the hour you are currently in. For example if the time is 09:34, you say: Sool-dasht na dakt sayinka Naan (Thirty four since nine).
  • When you want to say approximately half way, you say that you are in the middle of the hour you are in: if the approximate time is 10:36, you say Derj Dakht (Half ten).
  • When you want to say approximately a quarter past the start of the hour, for example 12:18, you say, Verj Sayinka Sool (A fourth since 12).
  • When you want to say a quarter to the next hour, for example 3:54, you say, Verj tulha Vaar (A fourth to 12).
  • When you want to say a third from the current hour, for example 6:24, you say Terj Sayinka Saash (A third since 6).
  • When you want to say a third to the next hour, for instance 7:48, you say Taarj tulha Gat (A third until 8). This formula applies for a 6th, 8th or 12th of the hour